chapter+2(+literature+review)

  English is one of the foreign languages. But this language is very familiar with us now. Foreign language learning and teaching have undergone a significant paradigm shift from traditional teacher-centered to a learner/learning-centered environment. Historically language teaching was described in terms of what teachers did in the classroom. In the 1960s and 1970s foreign language research redirected the focus from factors external to the learner to factors inside the mind of the learner. Studies focused on the impact of social, cognitive, and environmental factors on language achievement and proficiency. These studies revealed that foreign language acquisition is a complex, multidimensional process. Relying on language theories, research findings and experiences, language teachers and educators developed teaching strategies and created learning environments that engaged learners in active and interactive communicative language activities. A shift in foreign language pedagogy from a specific foreign language method to one of measurement of language performance/competency has resulted in a change in the role of the teacher from one of authority/expert to one who guides learning tasks in a classroom environment designed to meet the cognitive and affective needs of the learner. A. K. Moeller and E. Koubek, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA in their effort to explain the Foreign Language Teaching and Learning**.**  The other comparison of this research is like Learning through a familiar language versus learning through a foreign language. A look into some secondary school classrooms in Tanzania**.** This article builds on 30 h of observations made in classrooms in secondary schools in Tanzania in the fall of 2004. The article presents an empirical study using an experimental group that was taught in Kiswahili and a control group taught the same topics in English. The author takes the reader straight into some of the classrooms and gives excerpts from four lessons. In the classrooms the teacher teaches a topic on one occasion in English and then the same topic is taught in Kiswahili. In one of the examples given here it is the same teacher who teaches the same topic in the two languages to two different classes. The observational data are examined using a theoretical framework known as qualification analysis. The data are analysed with respect to the qualification categories that are promoted or inhibited through the class-room interaction taking place. The data show that if the aim is the stupidification of the Tanzanian labour force, the use of English, a foreign language to the students and a language poorly mastered by the teachers, seems to be an excellent strategy. If the aim is to create a labour force with critical abilities and creative qualifications, the language of instruction policy is unlikely to have such an outcome. The four excerpts here presented from my field notes as well as the summary of findings from 30 h of observation show that the qualifications received through teaching through a foreign language, a language students do not master are accepting adaptability qualifications. The students learn to obey, be quiet, to become indifferent and apathetic. If this is the work force independent Tanzania wants, this is the right type of teaching. It was this type of work force the colonial powers wanted. Developed and industrialized countries that would like to see Africa as producers of raw material but without critical capacities would also like to see this type of work force in Africa. If, however, Tanzania wants a work force that is able to develop the productive forces of the economy, think creatively and critically, combine old and new knowledge, the learning going on in the classrooms portrayed here where the language of instruction is Kiswahili, is the learning to be aimed at. It is only in these classrooms we observed critical thinking and students who would challenge authority. Altvater, E., 1971. Materialen zur politischen O¨ konomie des. Ausbildungssektors. Politladen, Erlangen. Batibo, H.M., 1995. The growth of Kiswahili as language of education and administration in Tanzania. In: Putz, M. (Ed.), Discrimination Through Language in Africa: Perspectives on the Namibian Experience. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 57–80. Brock-Utne, B., 1982. The hidden curriculum of the Norwegian compulsory school. Tidskrift fo¨ r Nordisk Fo¨ rening fo¨ r, Pedagogisk Forskning. No. 1–2, pp. 33–46. Brock-Utne, B., 2000. Whose Education For All? Recolonization of The African Mind. Falmer Press, New York Reprinted in 2006 by africanabooks, in their effort to explain the Learning through a familiar language versus learning through a foreign language.
 * Foreign Language Teaching and Learning **

The other example is a study of learner attitudes before and after the introduction of a second foreign language to the curriculum. Whilst adults in Sweden place great importance on communicative competence in English, interest in learning other FLs and support for multilingualism are low. This is mirrored in the attitudes of pupils in compulsory and post-compulsory education, where English is a popular subject but opt-out and drop-out rates for FLs are high. Whilst international research has shown that initial enthusiasm for FLs often declines after instruction begins, and that girls are more positive to FLs than boys, little is known about the language attitudes of pupils at the time when a new FL is introduced into the curriculum. The aim of this study is thus to investigate Swedish girls’ and boys’ FL attitudes prior and subsequent to the introduction of a new FL into the curriculum, to compare these with attitudes to their first FL, English, and to investigate gender variances. The results reveal that although pupils’ enthusiasm for their new FL declines after a year of instruction, it is nevertheless stronger than for English. Girls and boys approach their studies of a new FL with different attitudes, girls having more positive self-concepts as FL speakers and a greater interest in the communicative potential of FLs.G. Anderman and M. Rogers, 2005, //In and Out of English: For Better, for Worse?//, Multilingual Matters, Clevedon (2005). S. Bacon and M. Finneman, 1992, Sex differences in self-reported beliefs about foreign language learning and authentic oral and written input, //Language Learning// **42** (1992), pp. 471–495. Barber, M., 1994. Born to be Better. Times Educational Supplement. 18th March. M. Bucholtz, 2000, Globalization, language and youth culture, //American Speech// **75** (3) (2000), pp. 280–283. Bucholtz, 2002, M. Bucholtz, Youth and cultural practice, //Annual Review of Anthropology// **31** (2002), pp. 525–552, in their effort to explain a study of learner attitudes before and after the introduction of a second foreign language to the curriculum.